This article explores the philosophical ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, particularly his views on inequality as presented in his "Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men." We will examine his perspective on the origins of inequality, his critique of civilization, and his concept of amour-propre.
Rousseau's Life and Influences
Early Life and Education
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was born in Geneva (now Switzerland) in 1712. He was a self-taught philosopher who did not receive formal philosophical training, setting him apart from many of his contemporaries. Rousseau grew up in a rural environment and had a deep appreciation for the classics of ancient Greece and Rome.
Key Life Events
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At age 15, he apprenticed to an engraver but left after facing punishment for being late.
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He met Madame de Warens, who took him in and provided him with education, including converting him to Catholicism.
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Rousseau later moved to Paris, where he lived with Madame de Warens and worked as a music tutor.
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He contributed to Diderot's encyclopedia, writing the entry for music.
Rise to Fame
Rousseau gained fame after winning a writing competition with his essay arguing that advancements in science and art lead to the corruption of morals. This was followed by the impactful "Discourse on the Origin of Inequality," which solidified his position as a prominent philosopher. This work inspired many during the French Revolution, who saw the work as validating the feeling that change could be achieved.
Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men
Natural vs. Social Inequality
Rousseau's central question is whether inequality is natural or a product of society. He argues that we must distinguish between human nature in its original, uncorrupted state and human nature as shaped by civilized society. This distinction is crucial for understanding when and how inequality arises.
Rejecting Natural Justifications for Inequality
Rousseau challenges the notion that inequality is inherent, as proposed by thinkers like Aristotle. He argues that even if individuals are born with different abilities, society determines how these differences are valued and treated.
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Aristotle claimed Greeks were inherently superior
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Rousseau said inequality stems not from nature but from society.
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Nature is neither just nor unjust.
The State of Nature
To understand human nature, Rousseau introduces the concept of the "state of nature," a hypothetical condition where humans exist without the influence of civilization. In this state, people are self-sufficient and live like wild animals. Rousseau uses this as a baseline to examine the changes that arise in civilizations.
Critique of Civilization
Rousseau compares humans in the state of nature to domesticated animals, arguing that civilization has made humans weaker and more susceptible to diseases and suffering. While he criticizes civilization, he does not advocate for a return to primitive life. Instead, he uses it to challenge the assumption that human nature is inherently evil and that inequality is natural. He thought that equality originated from human creation.
Human Nature in the State of Nature
Rousseau believes that original human nature comprises two primary forces:
- Self-preservation: The instinct to survive and ensure one's well-being.
- Compassion: The ability to feel empathy and concern for the suffering of others.
He posits that these two forces do not lead to inequality in the state of nature.
Key Differences Between Humans and Animals
Rousseau identifies two key traits that distinguish humans from animals:
- Perfectibility: The capacity for inner potential and to be shaped by the environment, like language.
- Free Will: The ability to choose and resist natural laws, demonstrated through resistance to hunger.
These traits, along with self-love and compassion, do not explain the origin of inequality, according to Rousseau.
Inequality's Origin: Transition to Communal Society
Rousseau argues that inequality arises when humans transition from solitary existence to communal societies. As people gather and interact, they begin to compare themselves, leading to the development of vanity and a desire for superiority.
The Role of Amour-Propre
From Self-Love to Vanity
Rousseau identifies amour-propre (vanity, pride) as the root of inequality. Amour-propre is a distorted form of self-love that arises from comparing oneself to others and seeking their approval. It is not present in the state of nature.
The Psychology of Inequality
Rousseau believes that amour-propre drives people to constantly seek validation and feel superior. This leads to competition, envy, and a desire for domination, which are the foundations of inequality.
Examples of Amour-Propre in Society
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Wealth Inequality: People accumulate wealth not necessarily for their needs but to feel superior to others.
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Love and Marriage: Marriage is seen as a way to publicly declare one's partner as the "best" and validate one's own choices.
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Daily Behaviors: Many actions, like working out or raising children, are driven by a desire for the approval and admiration of others.
The Consequences of Inequality
Loss of Freedom
Rousseau argues that economic inequality leads to a loss of freedom because the poor become dependent on the rich for employment and survival. This dependence forces them to sacrifice their autonomy.
Harm to Well-Being
Inequality undermines the well-being of society because it creates a sense of frustration and dissatisfaction, even among those who have their basic needs met. People desire equal respect and recognition, but the poor are often looked down upon, leading to unhappiness across all classes.
The Paradox of Amour-Propre
Rousseau acknowledges that amour-propre can also have positive consequences. The desire to compete and excel can lead to inventions, creations, and achievements that benefit society, as seen in the pursuit of glory and excellence.
The Oppressed Participate in Inequality
Rousseau states that inequality spreads because those oppressed participate and those of higher classes can be seen with more opportunity to do so.
Conclusion
Rousseau's analysis of inequality challenges conventional views and offers a profound critique of civilization. By identifying amour-propre as a key driver of inequality and highlighting its negative consequences, Rousseau encourages us to examine our own motivations and strive for a more just and equitable society. He is very anti-Enlightenment.
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